Historical Background of Cold War: Using Dance as a Weapon

World War II proved to be a outrageously devastating act of injustice, sorrow, frustration and chaos. Those all throughout the globe were confused and worried about the future of diplomatic peace. Even amidst this struggle, the United States and Soviet Union, then allies, disagreed about what the post-war world should look like. This friendship quickly diminished as the Soviet Union expanded at a rapid and threatening pace. Americans feared the growing movement of communism and disliked the tyrannical nature of the Soviet government. Towards the end of the 1940s, these tensions culminate into what is called The Cold War, a series of disagreements and heated conflict between these conflicting ideologies. While there was an absence of physical warfare, the ideological strife between these two powerhouses can be seen all the way up to even the 1990s. Although the Korean War in 1950 can be considered a war solely based around the communist North invading the non-communist South and American desire to resolve this issue, the United States never directly fought the Soviet Union. New American foreign policy goals were focused around the idea of "containment", a term meant to describe the notion that stabilization and protection of countries viable for communist takeover was vital. The United States and much of Western Europe, all embracing the idea that communism and the Soviets were entirely a danger, formed a strong alliance called NATO, that hoped to provide defense to the nations of Europe if the Soviets pressed further.

The years after the controversial Korean War formed an even stricter foreign policy that was starkly anti-communist is almost all forms. President Truman and his administration launched a powerful movement within the United States against all forms of Communism. The idea of "McCarthyism" sought to rid the United States of any internal citizens who praised communist themes. This harsh climate within our country provided for countless accusations amidst the American State Department, Labor Organizations and even within the artists of the time. Books were confiscated, musicians put on trial, and even modern dance choreographers who were involved in the extremely liberal New Dance Group (founded in 1932 with a mission to express the horrors of this world and challenge traditional societal pressures) were tested. But although many look at American Dance History through a traditional lens, and use this era of time to describe the way in which Modern Dance was stifled, I choose to examine the way in which the American Government used poignant pieces of dance to express the nationalistic message that they were trying to uphold. By sending certain modern dance works around the world, beneath the movement and the costumes is a performance speaking the patriotism, superiority and pride that Americans wished to portray to the Soviets and their allies. Within this blog I analyze mainly two extremely famous dance pieces, created by Martha Graham and George Balanchine, that were typically seen within an American State Department Arts tour program. Through these works one can understand the way in which American Modern Dance was used as a symbolic weapon of ideological warfare and a strategic cultural export during the Cold War.

I apologize in advance for the disorder amidst the order of the postings. This is my first time making a blog and I was a bit unsure of the way in which the format worked. Instead of placing the bibliography above this post (which is the only place I could seem to add the works cited in the blog) I've emailed Todd a copy in the email when I submitted this link. The bottom of this blog shows a brief description of Martha Graham's history (important to understand because of the grandness of her celebrity in the field) which should be read first. Because I have not found a way to shuffle the order of my postings to make the blog more coherent (as one could with paragraphs within a paper) my suggestion is to scroll down to the bottom and begin reading upwards from there. This has been an interesting project that has combined both my love for dance and interest in American History. By analyzing this time period through the lens of a political performance standpoint, I have been able to further my understanding of the way in which the threat of communism truly took over almost all aspects of American life. Nothing was rid of the fear. Even the arts, especially American Modern Dance, were used as a way to enrich the American message and spread our nationalistic pride during this tumultuous time.

Balanchine's "Stars and Stripes": Ultimate Patriotism

Although many consider George Balanchine to be one of American Ballet's greatest choreographers, his view on contemporary dance has earned him a spot within the category of modernism. Originally from St. Petersburg, Russia, this pioneer co-founded the New York City Ballet in 1948 and was virtually the first to provide new choreography that countered classical ballet while still maintaining traditional technique. While most of his pieces are not overtly political, it was interesting for me to look at Stars and Stripes in relation to the Cold War tension of the time, because he certainly intended to evoke a feeling of cultural superiority, patriotism, and overwhelming nationalism each time this piece was performed both here and abroad.

Premiered on January 17th, 1958, Stars and Stripes embodied an original cast adorned with ballet celebrities. Allegra Kent, Diana Adams and Jacques d'Amboise were just some of the few. In addition to a truly American message, it contained some of the best aspects of pure dance. The work is divided into five campaigns all demonstrating a different American theme. "Liberty Bell" and "El Captain" are two of the sections. 28 minutes of leaps and bounds, enthralling music, uplifting gestures, dancers clothed in red, white and blue and enthusiastic presentations of camaraderie and hard work, this work just screams to shed a positive light on the United States. It's not a surprise that the United States State Department sent Stars and Stripes on tour. Attempting to bolster our image abroad and compete with the Soviets, the American government saw this work as a political asset. Ironically, Balanchine was once considered Russian but from the choreography presented here, one understands that his yankee spirit fueled this piece.

Without a doubt, Stars and Stripes was created and performed at a poignant time in history. Post World War II, the economic competition existing between the Communist world and capitalist societies generated international strife that was heightened especially during the 1950s. These years were filled with proxy wars, espionage, propaganda and extreme rivalry in the Space Race. The allied powers within the axis so forcefully disagreed with the political makeup of the Soviet Union and felt threatened about democracy's future. Attempting to shape the minds of all people, propaganda could be seen all over. Today, the word propaganda is considered to be one that is vulgar, during this time period is was more widely accepted for what it was. When one thinks of agit-prop materials, I too think of classic communist images like the one to the left. But it can definitely be argued that American propaganda equally matched this image. Stars and Stripes was and is a politically charged message. Meant to emphasize the grandness of the United States, and almost forcefully strike audience members abroad, this piece brought baggage far beyond it's surface movement. With diplomats oftentimes in the audience, the U.S. State Department planned strategically with Balanchine to construct a pleasurable program that would leave an impact. Stars and Stripes did just that.

Martha Graham's "Diversion of Angels": Universal Love Amidst a Divided World

As this project progresses, I'm beginning to ask myself more specific questions about American Modern Dance pieces that are considered to be products of its historical time. Post World War II, right before the Cold War, Graham created one of her most famous works, Diversion of Angels, which toured internationally thanks to financial support from the U.S. government. Why was it considered to be a cultural export? What techniques did Graham use in Diversion of Angels both artistically and technically and in addition, how did these methods emphasize the political climate of the time?

           

The work of Martha Graham is some of the greatest expressions of artistry, sentiment and complex ideology. As one of the most influential modernists, Graham’s work was and still is highly acclaimed. Thanks to her rapport and charismatic personality, Graham’s pieces were created, mastered and then often performed throughout the world. She was able to represent American modern dance in a way unlike any others. In 1948, Graham premiered an exceptionally joyous work, Diversion of Angels. Unlike her traditionally dark and serious nature of her previous pieces, Diversion of Angels represents universal love and the overall discovery of self, mutual and pure attachment. Conceived and performed right after WWII, the United States was looking for a way to build nationalistic pride during such a tumultuous time. Diversion of Angels was an ideal piece to be taken across borders and performed internationally because it tackles the issues of human affection, an aspect of life touching the hearts of all.

Under the score made by Norman Dello Joio, Diversion of Angels portrays couples performing duets and evoke feelings of lightness, harmony and flirtation. Martha Graham’s work was considered to be an export of the United States. Graham’s company was sent by the State Department and the Ford Foundation to Europe, and additionally the Far East, often for diplomatic functions. Performances and lecture demonstrations fascinated audiences. One notable tour began in Japan on October 23^rd, 1956. The four performances in Tokyo were packed with 2,000 viewers, emphasizing the success of the Graham Company abroad. That same year, Dance Observer, described the performance in two short articles comprised of reviews from Japan and elsewhere. A Japanese critic expressed the positive feedback. “Calmness to motion, motion to serenity… those two and a half hours gave hole audience deep emotion; even noticed lot of young dancers had swimming eyes with high praise.”[1] Diversion of Angels’s angular movement, intricate patterns and sensual duets, characterized by an overwhelming sentiment of human love, contributed to this program’s acclaim.

By bringing art to such a “hot-spot”, during the height of the Cold War, President Eisenhower’s decision to encourage dance abroad was a success. Graham and Diversion of Angels, in particular, sought to ease tensions and express American sentiment fondly. Easily accessible for many types of audiences, this movement is somewhat traditional in the sense of content but her technique of contraction, cause and effect, and tension evokes a progressive vision of American Modern Dance.

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[1] Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War, page 48, Wesleyan University Press: 1999.

Martha Graham: Modern Dance Pioneer

Many consider Martha Graham to be one of America's most famous and influential Modern Dance choreographers. Her work was powerful, steady and filled with both tension and release. Some say that she created a new form of language to express the complexities, passions and rage of humanity. In 1926, she formed the Martha Graham Center of Contemporary Dance which is where the core of her students learned Graham's traditional and innovative technique. In 1936, Graham created her most famous work, "Chronicle", which exemplified American values like hard work but also it contained emotions of sadness and loneliness which reflected recent events such as the Great Depression and Spanish Civil War. Although many of her works, like "Appalachian Spring" (pictured below), were considered to be classically American, one can certainly see influences from Asian, Grecian and Middle Eastern cultures amidst her artistry. "Clytemnestra", an evening work created in 1958, was one of her largest-scale pieces that honed in on the mysteries of this Greek myth and legend.

This new era of dance that emphasized fluidity, movement freedom and a fully embodied performance art, was certainly lead by the works of Martha Graham. Graham believed firmly that her works should be seen in person, and was highly careful with the filming and photographing of her pieces. Her company still performs today both domestically and internationally. Later in this blog, we will examine the way in which the Graham Company, during the 1950s, was able to spread many American political messages of the time through the performance of her art, specifically during State Department sponsored tours.